ANTIVIRAL AND ANTIMICROBIAL PROPERTIES OF ZINC: BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE AND PROSPECTS FOR USE IN DENTISTRY (LITERATURE REVIEW)
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.35220/2523-420X/2026.3.18Keywords:
zinc; zinc oxide; ZnO nanoparticles; antimicrobial activity; biofilm; dental materials; oral hygieneAbstract
To summarize current evidence on the biological role of zinc, its antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal and antibiofilm properties, and the prospects for using zinc-containing compounds in dentistry. Materials and methods. A narrative analytical review was prepared using scientific publications indexed in PubMed and available through official publisher platforms, supplemented by screening of reference lists of relevant reviews. Priority was given to systematic reviews, clinical studies and recent experimental publications from 2015–2025, while selected earlier studies were retained for foundational mechanisms. The analysis covered zinc biology, antiviral mechanisms, antibacterial and antibiofilm effects of Zn2+ and ZnO, and dental applications in oral-care products, restorative materials, endodontics and implantology. Scientific novelty. Current evidence was synthesized with an explicit distinction between the physiological role of zinc, experimentally demonstrated antimicrobial effects and clinically supported outcomes. Recent 2024–2025 clinical and experimental studies on zinc-containing oralcare products, ZnO nanomaterials and functionalized dental materials were incorporated to update the evidence base. Results. Zinc contributes to innate and adaptive immunity, epithelial barrier integrity, inflammatory regulation and antioxidant defense. Direct antiviral effects of Zn2+ have mainly been demonstrated in experimental models and should not be equated with proven clinical efficacy of systemic zinc supplementation. Antibacterial and antibiofilm activity depends on chemical form, concentration, ion availability and material characteristics. In dentistry, the most clinically relevant applications include zinc-containing oral-care products, while many ZnO nanomaterial applications remain predominantly experimental. Conclusions. Zinc has substantial potential for prevention and control of microbially associated oral processes, but its effects should be interpreted according to the specific compound, concentration, route of application and clinical context. Further research should standardize concentrations, evaluate long-term biocompatibility and generate robust clinical evidence.
References
Pushpalatha, C., Suresh, J., Gayathri, V.S., Sowmya, S.V., Augustine, D., Alamoudi, A., & et al. (2022). Zinc oxide nanoparticles: a review on its applications in dentistry. Front Bioeng Biotechnol, 10, 917990. DOI:10.3389/fbioe.2022.917990.
Caruso, S., Valenti, C., Marinucci, L., Di, Pasquale, F., Truppa, C., Di Benedetto, G., & et al. (2024). Systematic review of zinc’s benefits and biological effects on oral health. Materials, 17(4), 800. DOI: 10.3390/ma17040800.
Uwitonze, A.M., Ojeh, N., Murererehe, J., Atfi, A., & Razzaque, M.S. (2020). Zinc adequacy is essential for the maintenance of optimal oral health. Nutrients, 12(4), 949. DOI: 10.3390/nu12040949.
Wessels, I., Maywald, M., & Rink, L. (2017). Zinc as a gatekeeper of immune function. Nutrients, 9(12), 1286. DOI: 10.3390/nu9121286.
Prasad, A.S. (2008). Zinc in human health: effect of zinc on immune cells. Mol Med, 14(5-6), 353-357. DOI: 10.2119/ 2008-00033.
Bonaventura, P., Benedetti, G., Albarède, F., & Miossec, P. (2015). Zinc and its role in immunity and inflammation. Autoimmun Rev, 14(4), 277-285. DOI:10.1016/j.autrev.2014.11.008.
Sirelkhatim, A., Mahmud, S., Seeni, A., Kaus, N.H.M., Ann, L.C., Bakhori, S.K.M., & et al. (2015). Review on zinc oxide nanoparticles: antibacterial activity and toxicity mechanism. Nano-Micro Lett, 7, 219-242. DOI: 10.1007/s40820-015-0040-x.
Arun, D., Adikari, Mudiyanselage, D., Gulam, Mohamed, R., Liddell, M., Hassan, N.M.M., & Sharma, D. (2021). Does the addition of zinc oxide nanoparticles improve the antibacterial properties of direct dental composite resins? A systematic review. Materials, 14(1), 40. DOI: 10.3390/ma14010040.
Malekhoseini, Z., Rezvani, M.B., Niakan, M., Atai, M., Bassir, M.M., Alizade, H.S., & Siabani, S. (2021). Effect of zinc oxide nanoparticles on physical and antimicrobial properties of resin-modified glass ionomer cement. Dent Res J, 18(1), 73. DOI: 10.4103/ 1735-3327.326646.
Shankar, A.H., & Prasad, A.S. (1998). Zinc and immune function: the biological basis of altered resistance to infection. Am J Clin Nutr, 68(2), 447S-463S. DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/ 68.2.447S.
Read, S.A., Obeid, S., Ahlenstiel, C., & Ahlenstiel, G. (2019). The role of zinc in antiviral immunity. Adv Nutr, 10(4), 696-710. DOI: 10.1093/advances/nmz013.
te Velthuis, A.J.W., van den Worm, S.H.E., Sims, A.C., Baric, R.S., Snijder, E.J., & van Hemert, M.J. (2010). Zn2+ inhibits coronavirus and arterivirus RNA polymerase activity in vitro and zinc ionophores block the replication of these viruses in cell culture. PLoS Pathog, 6(11), e1001176. DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1001176.
Nault, D., Machingo, T.A., Shipper, A.G., Antiporta, D.A., Hamel, C., Nourouzpour, S., & et al. (2024). Zinc for prevention and treatment of the common cold. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 5, CD014914. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD014914.pub2.
Zhou, Y., Zhou, Y., Liao, B., Chen, X., Niu, Y., & Ren, B. (2024). Effects of toothpaste containing 2% zinc citrate on gingival health and three related bacteria: a randomized double-blind study. Clin Exp Dent Res, 10(6), e70020. DOI: 10.1002/cre2.70020.
Leite, M.L., Comeau, P., Zaghwan, A., Shen, Y., & Manso, A.P. (2025). Long-lasting antimicrobial effect of multipurpose ZnO nanoparticle-loaded dental resins enhanced by blue light photodynamic therapy. Dent Mater, 41(3), 347-355. DOI: 10.1016/j.dental.2024.12.006.
Adams, S.E., Cawley, A.K., Arnold, D., Hoptroff, M.J., Slomka, V., Matheson, J.R., & et al. (2025). A randomised, double-blind clinical study into the effect of zinc citrate trihydrate toothpaste on oral plaque microbiome ecology and function. Sci Rep, 15(1), 8136. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-025-92545-0.
Alkaya, B., Kayhan, H.G., Demirbilek, F., Sahin, M., Totik, N., Ozcan, M., & Teughels, W. (2025). Clinical effects of zinc-containing stents on gingivitis: a randomised controlled trial. Oral Health Prev Dent, 23, 577-584. DOI: 10.3290/j.ohpd.c_2275.
Nabavizadeh, M., Abbaszadegan, A., & Zebardast, F. (2025). Effect of zinc oxide nanoparticles on calcium-enriched mixture cement: physical, chemical, and mechanical properties. Iran Endod J, 20(1), e23. DOI: 10.22037/iej.v20i1.46475.
Stefanache, A., Lungu, I.I., Butnariu, I.A., Calin, G., Gutu, C., Marcu, C., & et al. (2023). Understanding how minerals contribute to optimal immune function. J Immunol Res, 2023, 3355733. DOI: 10.1155/ 2023/ 3355733.
Sadeghsoltani, F., Mohammadzadeh, I., & Safari, M.M. (2022). Zinc and respiratory viral infections: important trace element in anti-viral response and immune regulation. Biol Trace Elem Res, 200(6), 2556-2571. DOI: 10.1007/s12011-021-02859-z.
Skalny, A.V., Rink, L., Ajsuvakova, O.P., Aschner, M., Gritsenko, V.A., Alekseenko, S.I., & et al. (2020). Zinc and respiratory tract infections: perspectives for COVID-19. Int J Mol Med, 46(1), 17-26. DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2020.4575.
Lonergan, Z.R., & Skaar, E.P. (2019). Nutrient zinc at the host-pathogen interface. Trends Biochem Sci, 44(12), 1041-1056. DOI: 10.1016/j.tibs.2019.06.010.
Alamir, O.F., Oladele, R.O., & Ibe, C. (2021). Nutritional immunity: targeting fungal zinc homeostasis. Heliyon, 7(8), e07805. DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2021. e07805.
Donaghy, C., Javellana, J.G., Hong, Y.J., Djoko, K., & Angeles-Boza, A.M. (2023). The synergy between zinc and antimicrobial peptides: an insight into unique bioinorganic interactions. Molecules, 28(5), 2156. DOI: 10.3390/molecules28052156.
Hojati, S.T., Alaghemand, H., Hamze, F., Ahmadian, Babaki, F., Rajab-Nia, R., Rezvani, M.B., & et al. (2013). Antibacterial, physical and mechanical properties of flowable resin composites containing zinc oxide nanoparticles. Dent Mater, 29(5), 495-505. DOI: 10.1016/j.dental. 2013.03.011.
Aydin, Sevinç, B., & Hanley, L. (2010). Antibacterial activity of dental composites containing zinc oxide nanoparticles. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater, 94B(1), 22-31. DOI:10.1002/jbm.b.31620.
Srisilapanan, P., Roseman, J., & Likitsatian, T. (2019). Clinical effect of toothpaste and mouth rinse containing zinc lactate on oral malodor reduction. J Clin Exp Dent, 11(4), e346-e352. DOI: 10.4317/jced.55418.
Gharibnavaz, M., Arash, V., Pournajaf, A., Najafi, F., Rahmati, Kamel, M., & Seyedmajidi, S. (2025). Study on the antibacterial properties and optical characteristics of clear orthodontic aligners coated with zinc oxide and magnesium oxide nanoparticles. Orthod Craniofac Res, 28(3), 496-506. DOI: 10.1111/ocr.12899.
Malheiros, S.S., Borges, M.H.R., Rangel, E.C., Fortulan, C.A., da Cruz, N.C., Barao, V.A.R., & Nagay, B.E. (2025). Zinc-doped antibacterial coating as a single approach to unlock multifunctional and highly resistant titanium implant surfaces. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 17(12), 18022-18045. DOI:10.1021/acsami.4c21875.
Osorio, R., Cardenas, A.F.M., Siqueira, F.S.F., Toledano-Osorio, M., Medina-Castillo, A., & Toledano, M. (2025). Zinc-doped polymeric nanoparticles in the treatment of dentin hypersensitivity: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Dent Mater, 41(8), 1027-1033. DOI: 10.1016/j.dental.2025.06.006.
